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Antilipemic Agent Bile Acid Sequestrants

Editor: Ishwarlal Jialal Updated: 1/23/2023 7:53:40 PM

Indications

Bile acid sequestrants, including colesevelam, colestipol, and cholestyramine, are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in combination with restriction of dietary saturated and trans-fatty acids to manage hypercholesterolemia. They are indicated for patients with hypercholesterolemia without hypertriglyceridemia.[1] Bile acid sequestrants are beneficial therapy in statin-intolerant patients (myalgia and myopathy). They can be used in combination with niacin and the cholesterol absorption inhibitor ezetimibe to achieve target goals in patients in primary and secondary prevention. They can lower LDL-C between 15 to 30% if patients tolerate it at full doses. Some bile acid sequestrants are also FDA-approved for adolescents (10 to 17 years of age).[2] Therefore, bile acid sequestrants are 1 of the few drugs safe for children with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. 

Cholestyramine: It is used as adjunctive therapy to diet to reduce elevated serum cholesterol in patients with primary hypercholesterolemia (elevated LDL) who do not respond adequately to diet and to treat pruritus associated with partial biliary obstruction. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute studied the effects of cholestyramine on coronary atherosclerosis. The study looked at 116 people with type II hyperlipoproteinemia and coronary artery disease. Patients were all on a low-fat, low-cholesterol diet and assigned a placebo or 6 g of cholestyramine 4 times daily. Cholestyramine decreased LDL-C by 26% after randomization. Coronary artery disease progressed in 32% vs. 49% of patients in cholestyramine vs. placebo, respectively. The cardioprotective effects of cholestyramine appear to be largely due to reducing LDL-C.[3][4] These results illustrate that bile acid sequestrants can reduce cardiovascular disease and LDL-C compared to lifestyle changes alone.

Studies have assessed the use of cholestyramine in children with type II hyperlipoproteinemia (12 g/day), and while most patients had normal cholesterol blood concentrations after 6 months, adherence was often poor. Only 55% of children were still on treatment at 6 years, and 48% after 8 years. Adherence is critical in this population since this group will likely require lifelong lipid-lowering therapies.[5] As an off-label use, cholestyramine can treat chronic diarrhea due to bile acid malabsorption. They can also help treat pruritus from elevated concentrations of bile acids and act as adjunctive therapy for Graves disease hyperthyroid patients.[6][7] As monotherapy in the Lipid Research Clinics-Coronary Primary Prevention Trial (LRC-CPPT), they reduced low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C)  by 20 % and cardiovascular events.[8] In this trial, cholestyramine (24g/d) versus placebo reduced the primary outcome of combined coronary heart disease and non-fatal myocardial infarction by 19% in patients with primary hypercholesterolemia. They can be combined with HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) or as monotherapy.

Colesevelam: Three double-blind, placebo-controlled trials with the use of colesevelam HCL (COL) in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2 (T2D) patients showed reductions in LDL-C and hemoglobin (Hb)A1c. These results led to the FDA approval of COL as an adjuvant to exercise and dietary restriction for improving glycemic control in patients with T2D. Therefore, COL therapy is effective for patients with diabetes who have not met their HbA1c goal of below 7% or LDL-C goal of under 100 mg/dL or 30 to 49 %  or over 50 % reduction in LDL-C.[2] The main advantage of using bile acid sequestrants is that they are safe for administration combined with other anti-diabetic medications and statins. They are the safest LDL-C lowering therapy to date.

Colestipol: In an early study assessing bile acid sequestrants' use in Type IIA hyperproteinemia, subjects were randomized to a low-cholesterol diet with either placebo or colestipol (30 mg) over 7 years. The colestipol group decreased LDL-C from 331.1 +/- 22.8 to 188.1 +/- 13.8 mg/dL. The diet plus placebo group showed no improvement.[5]

Mechanism of Action

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Mechanism of Action

The mechanism by which bile acid sequestrants reduce LDL-C involves the malabsorption of bile acids in the intestine. It forms an insoluble complex that gets excreted in the feces, causing the depletion of bile acids from the enterohepatic circulation. Since it is not intestinally digestible, it is biochemically unchanged when passing through the intestines. As bile acid concentrations decrease, more hepatic cholesterol converts to bile acids due to the disinhibition of cholesterol 7-alpha hydroxylase, the rate-limiting step in bile acid production; this reduces hepatic cholesterol and upregulation of hepatic LDL receptors, and consequentially, the is a decrease in LDL-C blood concentrations. Some evidence suggests that bile acid sequestrants also cause an increase in 3-hydroxy-3-methyl glutaryl-coenzyme A, the rate-limited step in hepatic cholesterol synthesis.[9] Although cholesterol synthesis increases with bile acid sequestrants, plasma cholesterol does not rise due to the shunting of newly formed cholesterol into bile acid synthesis pathways. Bile acid sequestrants may also have a role in reducing inflammation. One double-blind, placebo-controlled study found that colesevelam HCL monotherapy (3.75 g/day for 6 weeks) lowered high sensitivity-C reactive protein by 15.9%.[10]

Administration

Bile acid sequestrants are administered orally as a prepared suspension or tablet, preferably at mealtime. Depending on the resin and dosage form, they are recommended to be taken at various times during the day.

Cholestyramine

  • It is available as a powder for oral suspension packets (each containing 4 gm cholestyramine) and a multidose powder for suspension containers with scoop measurements for accurate dosing. The powder should be mixed with water or juice to avoid difficulty swallowing and esophageal distress.
  • The usual dose is 4 gm, taken 1 to 2 times daily to lower LDL-C. Dosing is recommended twice daily, but it can be used up to 6 times daily. The dose can be increased slowly every 1 to 2 months. The usual maintenance dose is 8 to 16 gm daily. Maximum doses are 24 gm daily for treatment of primary hypercholesterolemia. 
  • In children, anhydrous cholestyramine resin can be administered as 240 mg/kg daily in 2 to 3 divided doses, usually not exceeding 8 gm daily. 

Colestipol

  • Colestipol is available in powder packets (5 gm), granule packets (5 gm), and oral tablets (1 gm) of colestipol hydrochloride.
  • It is administered as 2 g tablets once or twice daily, and the dose can be increased by 1 tablet once or twice daily at 1 to 2-month intervals. The maximum dose is 20 gm daily. 
  • The recommended daily adult dose for colestipol is 1 to 6 packets or scoopfuls, preferably in divided doses. The starting dose is 1 packet once or twice daily and should be increased by 1 dose per day every 1 to 2 months. Colestipol powders are mixed with water or juice to avoid esophageal distress and accidental inhalation. 
  • Safety and effectiveness in the pediatric population have not been established.

Colesevelam

  • It is available as 625 mg tablets or granules for oral suspension packets containing 3.75 gm colesevelam. 
  • The usual adult dosing is 3.75 g/day in 1 or 2 divided doses for diarrhea associated with bile acid malabsorption, hyperlipidemia, or T2DM.
  • The FDA recently approved a chewable bar form of colesevelam intended for administration with meals. Maximum doses are 3.75 gm daily.
  • Colesevelam use is safe and effective as monotherapy or with a statin in children 10 to 17 years of age with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (HeFH). Due to the tablet size, colesevelam for oral suspension is preferred in this population. Dose adjustments are unnecessary when colesevelam is given to children 10 to 17 years old. Colesevelam use is not studied in children younger than 10 or premenarchal girls.

Notes: All bile acid-binding sequestering agents should be started at the lowest dose and titrated gradually to minimize side effects. Also, increasing fiber in the diet, such as bran and psyllium husk, can help with adherence. However, there tends to be poor adherence with large doses of bile acid sequestrants, making bile acid sequestrants greater than 15 g 2 times daily ineffective.[11] If resin treatment is discontinued, cholesterol blood concentrations will return to pretreatment blood concentrations in approximately 1 month.[12]

Specific Patient Population

Pregnant Women: Bile acid sequestrants are pregnancy category C. Limited data is available on its use in pregnant women, and it is insufficient to determine its safety in pregnant patients with hypercholesterolemia. Use if only potential benefits outweigh potential risks. Also, regular prenatal vitamins might not be sufficient while on bile acid-binding sequestering agents as they interfere with the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.

Breastfeeding Patients: Bile acid sequestrants are not absorbed systemically following oral administration, so breastfed babies are not exposed to them when their mothers use these agents.

Hepatic Impairment: There is no information on their use in patients with hepatic impairment.

Renal Impairment: Since bile acid sequestrants are chloride forms of anions exchange resin, they may produce hyperchloremic acidosis for prolonged periods. It is especially true when relative doses are higher, ie, in younger and smaller patients. Caution when used in patients with volume depletion, renal insufficiency, or in patients receiving concomitant spironolactone.

Adverse Effects

Since bile acid sequestrants are not absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, they have limited systemic side effects. Some of the most common adverse effects are gastrointestinal, including constipation, stomach pain, bloating, vomiting, heartburn, loss of appetite, indigestion, and upset stomach. Constipation is experienced by 10% of patients taking colestipol and 28% in those taking cholestyramine. These side effects occur more commonly with larger doses and older patients (older than 65 years). They can exacerbate peptic ulcer disease and hemorrhoids. Using it chronically correlates with bleeding problems in high doses, which is preventable using oral vitamin K therapy.

Cholestyramine: Its use requires caution in renally impaired patients as it can cause hyperchloremia acidosis, especially at higher doses. Asthma-like symptoms were not observed with colestipol but can occur with cholestyramine. Constipation associated with the use of cholestyramine can aggravate hemorrhoids. Resin therapy has reportedly produced transient and modest increases in serum transaminases and alkaline phosphatase.[1]

Colestipol: Wide array of adverse effects, including edema, syncope, dizziness, drowsiness, headaches, neuralgia, paresthesia, skin rashes, irritation, weight gain or loss, abdominal pain, biliary colic, constipation, dental discoloration, diarrhea, steatorrhea, abnormal hepatic function test, anemia, adenopathy, dyspnea, or wheezing are reported in patients using colestipol. Less than 1 in 1000 patients on colestipol have hypersensitivity, including urticaria or dermatitis. Other non-gastrointestinal adverse reactions reported at equal frequency in patients receiving colestipol or placebo were chest pain, tachycardia, angina, musculoskeletal pain, joint pains, aches or pains in the extremities, arthritis, and backache. Anorexia, weakness, fatigue, and swelling of the hands or feet have been infrequently reported.

Colesevelam: It can increase triglyceride levels, which can cause acute pancreatitis. In clinical trials, gastrointestinal obstruction and vitamin K or fat-soluble vitamin deficiencies are reported with colesevelam use. The use of colesevelam hydrochloride might decrease the efficacy of oral contraceptives, which contain ethinyl estradiol and norethindrone. Therefore, patients are advised to take oral contraceptives at least 4 hours before administering colesevelam. 

Drug Interactions

  • It can also induce malabsorption of fat-soluble vitamins, and therefore, patients with fat-soluble vitamin deficiencies should avoid bile acid sequestrants use. If using bile acid sequestrants with fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K) and folic acid, the patient should take the vitamins over 4 hours before.
  • Bile acid sequestrants may also decrease the absorption of many drugs by binding and excreting in the feces when taken concomitantly. Therefore, to avoid interference with other drugs, especially narrow therapeutic index drugs, commonly thyroxine, digoxin, warfarin, hydrochlorothiazide, etc, should be taken 1 hour before or 4 hours after the bile acid sequestrants.

Contraindications

Bile acid sequestrants should not be used in patients with hypersensitivity to active ingredients or components. Cholestyramine use is contraindicated in patients with complete biliary obstruction, where bile is not secreted into the intestine. Some formulations contain phenylalanine, so they should be used with caution in patients with phenylketonuria. Bile acid sequestrants are inappropriate for use in patients with serum triglycerides greater than 300 mg/dl or in those who have type III hyperlipoproteinemia since they can exacerbate hypertriglyceridemia and put the patient at risk for pancreatitis. Bile acid sequestrants are used cautiously in patients with triglyceride concentrations of 250 to 299 mg/dL with regular monitoring every 4 to 6 weeks after administration, with discontinuation of therapy if triglycerides exceed 400 mg/dL.[13] Some studies have shown that colestipol can bind T4 in the gut in vitro. Theoretically, this binding can disrupt normal T4 reabsorption, causing hypothyroidism. However, further investigation found that euthyroid patients had normal thyroid concentrations throughout resin treatment. As a precaution, patients taking supplemental thyroid should not take their thyroid medications simultaneously as taking bile acid sequestrants.[14] Colesevelam hydrochloride is contraindicated in patients with triglyceride levels of more than 500 mg/dL or patients with a history of hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis. It is also contraindicated for patients with gastroparesis, other gastrointestinal motility disorders, patients at risk for bowel obstruction, and patients with a history of major gastrointestinal tract surgery or bowel obstruction.

Monitoring

The monitoring of bile acid sequestrants therapy is via a reduction in LDL-C concentrations. Bile acid sequestrants lead to lipid reduction after approximately 2 weeks. The lipid profile requires measurement before initiating treatment, and the fasting lipid profile should be checked 4 to 12 weeks after starting therapy and every 3 to 12 months after that.[13] A mild increase in triglycerides occurs with bile acid sequestrant therapy. Monitoring constipation at least 2 times, usually 4 to 6 weeks apart, is recommended as cholestyramine resin might produce or worsen pre-existing constipation. Monitor the International Normalized Ratio frequently during initiation and then periodically for patients on anticoagulant treatment (warfarin). Concomitant use with colesevelam hydrochloride may increase the exposure of Metformin extended-release formulation, so monitor patients' blood glucose levels and HgA1C.

Toxicity

Overdosage of cholestyramine (150% of the maximum recommended daily dosage) has been reported in patients taking it for several weeks. No adverse effects were reported. Excessive doses of colesevelam hydrochloride might cause more severe local gastrointestinal effects (eg, constipation). If overdosage occurs, the primary potential problem would be obstruction of the gastrointestinal tract. At this time, the degree of possible obstruction, the location of such obstruction,  and the absence or presence of normal gut motility would determine its treatment.

Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Primary care providers are often the first to identify hypercholesterolemia in their patients and typically recommend bile acid sequestrants for their patients. Still, therapy requires an interprofessional healthcare team for optimal results. Nutritionists and diabetes educators can also consult on the case to help educate patients on appropriate lifestyle modifications to support patients who need to make these changes while on bile acid sequestrants. Endocrinologists or cardiologists may offer consultation when patients have a complex presentation, are unresponsive to bile acid sequestrants, or have severe complications from bile acid sequestrants. Nurses will be on hand to counsel patients, provide administration instructions, and monitor adherence and treatment results on subsequent visits. Importantly, pharmacists play a critical role in evaluating proper bile acid sequestrants administration and preventing polypharmacy in patients who are often taking multiple medications, checking for drug interactions, verifying dosing, reporting all findings to the rest of the team. An interprofessional team approach, including physicians, specialists, specialty-trained nurses and educators, and pharmacists conversing across disciplines to optimize patient-specific management, is critical in utilizing bile acid sequestrants.

References


[1]

Ast M, Frishman WH. Bile acid sequestrants. Journal of clinical pharmacology. 1990 Feb:30(2):99-106     [PubMed PMID: 2179278]


[2]

Jialal I, Abby SL, Misir S, Nagendran S. Concomitant reduction in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and glycated hemoglobin with colesevelam hydrochloride in patients with type 2 diabetes: a pooled analysis. Metabolic syndrome and related disorders. 2009 Jun:7(3):255-8. doi: 10.1089/met.2009.0007. Epub     [PubMed PMID: 19344229]

Level 2 (mid-level) evidence

[3]

Brensike JF, Levy RI, Kelsey SF, Passamani ER, Richardson JM, Loh IK, Stone NJ, Aldrich RF, Battaglini JW, Moriarty DJ. Effects of therapy with cholestyramine on progression of coronary arteriosclerosis: results of the NHLBI Type II Coronary Intervention Study. Circulation. 1984 Feb:69(2):313-24     [PubMed PMID: 6360414]

Level 1 (high-level) evidence

[4]

Levy RI,Brensike JF,Epstein SE,Kelsey SF,Passamani ER,Richardson JM,Loh IK,Stone NJ,Aldrich RF,Battaglini JW, The influence of changes in lipid values induced by cholestyramine and diet on progression of coronary artery disease: results of NHLBI Type II Coronary Intervention Study. Circulation. 1984 Feb;     [PubMed PMID: 6360415]

Level 1 (high-level) evidence

[5]

Kuo PT, Hayase K, Kostis JB, Moreyra AE. Use of combined diet and colestipol in long-term (7--7 1/2 years) treatment of patients with type II hyperlipoproteinemia. Circulation. 1979 Feb:59(2):199-211     [PubMed PMID: 215338]

Level 1 (high-level) evidence

[6]

Wilcox C, Turner J, Green J. Systematic review: the management of chronic diarrhoea due to bile acid malabsorption. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics. 2014 May:39(9):923-39. doi: 10.1111/apt.12684. Epub 2014 Mar 6     [PubMed PMID: 24602022]

Level 1 (high-level) evidence

[7]

Tsai WC, Pei D, Wang TF, Wu DA, Li JC, Wei CL, Lee CH, Chen SP, Kuo SW. The effect of combination therapy with propylthiouracil and cholestyramine in the treatment of Graves' hyperthyroidism. Clinical endocrinology. 2005 May:62(5):521-4     [PubMed PMID: 15853819]

Level 1 (high-level) evidence

[8]

. The Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Prevention Trial results. I. Reduction in incidence of coronary heart disease. JAMA. 1984 Jan 20:251(3):351-64     [PubMed PMID: 6361299]

Level 1 (high-level) evidence

[9]

Innis SM. The activity of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase and acyl-CoA: cholesterol acyltransferase in hepatic microsomes from male, female and pregnant rats. The effect of cholestyramine treatment and the relationship of enzyme activity to microsomal lipid composition. Biochimica et biophysica acta. 1986 Feb 12:875(2):355-61     [PubMed PMID: 3942771]

Level 3 (low-level) evidence

[10]

Devaraj S, Autret B, Jialal I. Effects of colesevelam hydrochloride (WelChol) on biomarkers of inflammation in patients with mild hypercholesterolemia. The American journal of cardiology. 2006 Sep 1:98(5):641-3     [PubMed PMID: 16923452]

Level 1 (high-level) evidence

[11]

Illingworth DR. Lipid-lowering drugs. An overview of indications and optimum therapeutic use. Drugs. 1987 Mar:33(3):259-79     [PubMed PMID: 3552597]

Level 3 (low-level) evidence

[12]

Kane JP, Malloy MJ, Tun P, Phillips NR, Freedman DD, Williams ML, Rowe JS, Havel RJ. Normalization of low-density-lipoprotein levels in heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia with a combined drug regimen. The New England journal of medicine. 1981 Jan 29:304(5):251-8     [PubMed PMID: 7003391]

Level 1 (high-level) evidence

[13]

Stone NJ, Robinson JG, Lichtenstein AH, Bairey Merz CN, Blum CB, Eckel RH, Goldberg AC, Gordon D, Levy D, Lloyd-Jones DM, McBride P, Schwartz JS, Shero ST, Smith SC Jr, Watson K, Wilson PW, Eddleman KM, Jarrett NM, LaBresh K, Nevo L, Wnek J, Anderson JL, Halperin JL, Albert NM, Bozkurt B, Brindis RG, Curtis LH, DeMets D, Hochman JS, Kovacs RJ, Ohman EM, Pressler SJ, Sellke FW, Shen WK, Smith SC Jr, Tomaselli GF, American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2014 Jun 24:129(25 Suppl 2):S1-45. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.0000437738.63853.7a. Epub 2013 Nov 12     [PubMed PMID: 24222016]

Level 1 (high-level) evidence

[14]

Witztum JL, Jacobs LS, Schonfeld G. Thyroid hormone and thyrotropin levels in patients placed on colestipol hydrochloride. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 1978 May:46(5):838-40     [PubMed PMID: 262768]